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【邏輯入門】Parallel reasoning
Prompt for parallel reasoning:
• Which one of the following is most closely parallel in its reasoning to the reasoning in the argument above?
• Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its patterns of reasoning to the argument above?
Before you look at the answers:
1. Pinpoint the main conclusion in the passage. (Read my previous Main Pointpost.)
2. Separate the premises from everything else. After you find the main point, don’t assume that all the other statements are premises; they might include opposing viewpoints, background information, and concessions.
3. Note how the different concepts link together and how often each concept appears. In the sentence that “Harrison is unlikely to compete, unless Jones competes as well,” for example, unless links these two clauses together while compete appears twice: “A is unlikely to B unless C does B.” The correct answer will do something similar.
Then look for the answer that most closely matches the logical pattern you notices.
• Compare the conclusion in the passage with the conclusions in the answer choices. Once you narrow down the answers; compare the premises.
• Difference that do NOT matter between the passage and the correct answer choice:
# Subject matter (passage is about monkeys; correct answer is about phones)
# Order (passage gives the conclusion first; correct answer gives the conclusion last)
# Form (passage says “A unless B”; correct answer says “If not B, then A”)
• Difference that matters:
# Word strength (passage uses most; wrong answer uses all or some)
# Negative vs. positive (passage uses “B and not B”; wrong answer uses “B and B”)
If the conclusion in the passage is negative, the conclusion in the correct answer does not have to be negative. But watch for answers that incorrectly introduce negative terms. In the Harrison example above, for instance, an answer that says “Joey is unlikely to cook hot dogs, unless Micah does not cook hot dogs” would be wrong because it went from “B” to “not B,” while our original example went from “B” to “B.” Going from “not B” to “B,” on the other hand, would be fine.
# Conditional statement (passage says “If A, then B”; wrong answer says just “B”)
# Causal statement (passage says “A causes B”; wrong answer says just “B”)
# Verb choice (passage uses can; wrong answer uses will)
Can—what can happen
Will—what will actually happen
Must—what is required, but not necessarily happening
Cause—what makes things happen
1. Zhonghua has proposed 3-year term limits for members of the party committee, many of whom have occupied their spots for over a decade. But an examination of Zhonghua’ record shows that he has held his seat on the party committee for nearly 13 years; so Zhonghua’ proposal does not deserve our consideration.The flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to the flawed reasoning in which one of the following?
(A) Ignore Ming’s proposed ordinance to provide tax credits to local business owners; Ming owns a local business.
(B) Do not give serious consideration to Gang’s proposal to eliminate tax deductions for property owners; he owns two homes in the community.
(C) We cannot trust this surgeon general’s health recommendations; he has been found guilty of both malpractice and corruption.
(D) Fang’s proposal to select a certain legal firm can be given no credence; Fang’s cousin is a partner at that firm.
(E) We can have little confidence in Mr. Zhang’s comments on the management of our steel plant; after all, Mr. Zhang has previously managed only banks and mini-marts.
2. An independent audit found no indication of tax avoidance on the part of the firm in the firm's accounts; therefore no such problem exists.
The questionable reasoning in the argument above is most closelyparalleled by that in which one of the following?
A) The plan for the introduction of the new product has been unmodified so far; therefore, it will not be modified in the future.
B) The overall budget for the projects has been exceeded by a large amount; therefore, at least one of the projects has exceeded its budget by a large amount.
C) A compilation of the best student essays of the year includes no essays on current events; therefore, students have become apathetic toward current events.
D) A survey of schools in the district found no school without a need for building repair; therefore, the education provided to students in the district is substandard.
E) An examination of the index of the book found no listing for the most prominent critic of the theory of the book advocates; therefore, the book fails to refer to that critic.
3. It is absurd to claim that whatever democratic activity the government does not support it does not allow. As a proof, one can see the absurdity in the rephrased version of the claim: No one is allowed to pursue democracy without a government support.
Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning that most closelyparallels that in the argument above?
(A) The notion that every student who has been supported by a Hope Scholarship will become a rising star is absurd, because if you rephrase the statement you will have: No student is going to become a rising star without a Hope Scholarship.
(B) The claim that any husband who is not divorced from his wife does not have an extramarital affair is absurd, because if you rephrase the statement you will have: Every husband who gets divorced has had an extramarital affair.
(C) The notion that every artist who is funded by a government grant will be famous is absurd, because if you rephrase the statement you will have: No artist who is famous is so without a government fund.
(D) The notion that every athlete who is supported by a scholarship will be exceptional is absurd, because if you rephrase the statement you will have: No athlete without a scholarship support will be exceptional.
(E) The claim that any husband who is not divorced from his wife does not have extramarital affair is absurd, because if you rephrase the statement you will have: Every husband who has an extramarital affair gets divorced.
4. Strategists predict that an armed civil conflict will occur if the dissemination of separatist propaganda continues or if oppressed religious groups are not given more freedom. But the liberation of oppressed religious groups would lead to the continued dissemination of separatist propaganda. Therefore, armed civil conflict is inevitable.
The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?
(A) Pollution will increase if the cost of energy consumption does not increase or if we do not become more energy-efficient. But we will achieve greater energy efficiency if the cost of energy consumption does increase. Therefore, pollution will not increase.
(B) If alumni contributions remain at their current level or if we fail to recruit top talent, then the basketball team’s record will most likely worsen. But we will fail to recruit top talent. Therefore, the basketball team’s record will most likely worsen.
(C) If the automation of tasks increases or worker satisfaction does not decline, then productivity at the factory will rise. But if there is a decline in worker satisfaction, that will lead to the automation of more tasks. Therefore, productivity at the factory will rise.
(D) If the dissemination of separatist propaganda continues or if media censorship is not relaxed, the frequency of political protests will increase. But the threat of trade embargoes ensures both that such dissemination will not continue and that media censorship will be relaxed. Thus, the frequency of political protests will not increase.
(E) If authoritarian regimes are not weakened and religious freedoms are not expanded, then living conditions will continue to stagnate. But due to a lack of international political will, authoritarian regimes will certainly maintain their strength and religious freedoms will not expand. Thus, living conditions will continue to stagnate.
5. No one in the French department to which Professor Alban belongs is allowed to teach more than one introductory level class in any one term. Moreover, the only language clases being taught next term are advanced ones. So it is untrue that both of the French classes Professor Alban will be teaching next term will be introductory level classes.
The pattern of reasoning displayed in the argument above is most closely paralleled by that in which one of the following arguments?
(A) The Morrison Building will be fully occupied by May and since if a building is occupied by May the new tax rates apply to it, the Morrison Building will be taxed according to the new rates.
(B) The revised tax code does not apply at all to building built before 1900, and only the first section of the revised code applies to buildings built between 1900 and 1920, so the revised code does not apply to the Norton Building, since it was built in 1873.
(C) All property on Overton Road will be reassessed for tax purposes by the end of the year and the Elnor Company Headquarters is on Overton Road, so Elnor's property taxes will be higher next year.
(D) New buildings that include public space are exempt from city taxes for 2 years and all new buildings in the city's Alton District are exempt for 5 years, so the building with the large public space that was recently completed in Alton will not be subject to city taxes next year.
(E) Since according to recent statute, a building that is exempt from property taxes is charged for city water at a special rate, and hospitals are exempt from property taxes, Founder's hospital will be charged for city water at a special rate.
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